{"meta":{"version":"2.1","_links":{"self":{"href":"https://api.vam.ac.uk/v2/object/O108707"},"collection_page":{"href":"https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O108707/"}},"images":{"_primary_thumbnail":"https://framemark.vam.ac.uk/collections/2006BA1566/full/!100,100/0/default.jpg","_iiif_image":"https://framemark.vam.ac.uk/collections/2006BA1566/","_alt_iiif_image":[],"imageResolution":"high","_images_meta":[{"assetRef":"2006BA1566","copyright":"© Victoria and Albert Museum, London","sensitiveImage":false},{"assetRef":"2006BA1565","copyright":"© Victoria and Albert Museum, London","sensitiveImage":false},{"assetRef":"2006BA1564","copyright":"© Victoria and Albert Museum, London","sensitiveImage":false},{"assetRef":"2006BA1563","copyright":"© Victoria and Albert Museum, London","sensitiveImage":false},{"assetRef":"2006BA1562","copyright":"© Victoria and Albert Museum, London","sensitiveImage":false}]},"see_also":{"_iiif_pres":"https://iiif.vam.ac.uk/collections/O108707/manifest.json","_alt_iiif_pres":[]}},"record":{"systemNumber":"O108707","accessionNumber":"M.508-1956","objectType":"Cross","titles":[],"summaryDescription":"The grandeur of this Genoese altar cross suggests it was commissioned by a wealthy family or church for a huge altar display. Genoa was a rich trading state in the 17th century and profits were spent on lavish architectural schemes with impressive interior furnishings. \r\n\r\nItaly was the heartland of the Counter Reformation, a reforming movement within the Roman Catholic Church which gathered momentum after the 1540s. During the 17th century the Catholic Church built and furnished many new churches in the fashionable and monumental Baroque style.","physicalDescription":"Wooden cross with silver-gilt mounts at each point, supporting in the centre a modelled bronze-gilt figure of the crucified Christ. The cross sits in a baluster-shaped mount on top of a cube-shaped parcel-gilt silver base elaborately decorated on each side with a chased (hammered) silver plaque of one of the four Evangelists and their symbols, the whole base sitting on four ball feet. Three holes on Christ's head indicate where a halo, and possibly a crown of thorns, were once attached.","artistMakerPerson":[{"name":{"text":"Unknown","id":"A1848"},"association":{"text":"","id":""},"note":""}],"artistMakerOrganisations":[],"artistMakerPeople":[],"materials":[{"text":"wood","id":"AAT11914"},{"text":"silver","id":"AAT11029"},{"text":"silver-gilt","id":"x37998"}],"techniques":[{"text":"casting","id":"AAT53104"},{"text":"chasing","id":"AAT54016"}],"materialsAndTechniques":"Wood, silver, silver-gilt, bronze-gilt","categories":[{"text":"Christianity","id":"THES48978"},{"text":"Metalwork","id":"THES48920"},{"text":"Religion","id":"THES48900"}],"styles":[],"collectionCode":{"text":"MET","id":"THES48599"},"images":["2006BA1566","2006BA1565","2006BA1564","2006BA1563","2006BA1562"],"imageResolution":"high","galleryLocations":[{"current":{"text":"62 (VA)","id":"THES49739"},"free":"","case":"CA1","shelf":"","box":""}],"partTypes":[[{"text":"Cross","id":""}]],"contentWarnings":[{"apprise":"","note":""}],"placesOfOrigin":[{"place":{"text":"Genoa (city)","id":"x30233"},"association":{"text":"made","id":"x28654"},"note":""}],"productionDates":[{"date":{"text":"ca. 1600-1610","earliest":"1595-01-01","latest":"1610-12-31"},"association":{"text":"made","id":"x28654"},"note":""}],"associatedObjects":[],"creditLine":"Dr W.L. Hildburgh Bequest","dimensions":[{"dimension":"Height","value":"72","unit":"cm","qualifier":"","date":{"text":"","earliest":null,"latest":null},"part":"","note":""},{"dimension":"Width","value":"29","unit":"cm","qualifier":"","date":{"text":"","earliest":null,"latest":null},"part":"cross","note":""},{"dimension":"Depth","value":"20","unit":"cm","qualifier":"","date":{"text":"","earliest":null,"latest":null},"part":"base","note":""},{"dimension":"Width","value":"20","unit":"cm","qualifier":"","date":{"text":"","earliest":null,"latest":null},"part":"base","note":""},{"dimension":"Height","value":"24.8","unit":"cm","qualifier":"","date":{"text":"","earliest":null,"latest":null},"part":"Of figure","note":""}],"dimensionsNote":"Measured for the Medieval and Renaissance Galleries","marksAndInscriptions":[{"content":"Town mark of Genoa","inscriber":{"name":{"text":"","id":""},"association":{"text":"","id":""}},"date":{"text":"","earliest":null,"latest":null},"description":"","interpretation":"","language":"","medium":"","method":"","position":"","script":"","translation":"","transliteration":"","type":"","note":"On rim of base. Repeated (more legibly) on centre of underside"},{"content":"Coat of Arms (deliberately obliterated)","inscriber":{"name":{"text":"","id":""},"association":{"text":"","id":""}},"date":{"text":"","earliest":null,"latest":null},"description":"","interpretation":"","language":"","medium":"","method":"","position":"","script":"","translation":"","transliteration":"","type":"","note":"On panel soldered beneath crucifix base."}],"objectHistory":"This crucifix entered the collection as part of the bequest of W.L. Hildburgh, a collector who had a long association with the Museum. Nothing is known of its early history, but the presence of the Genoa town mark suggests that it was made for a wealthy patron in that town, probably for use at a private altar.\n\nHistorical significance: Crosses of this sort well reflected the new relgiousity of the Counter Reform. The simple dark wood of the cross focuses attention onto the body of Christ. There were two types of crucifix at this date - one where Christ was represented alive (the 'Christo-vivo' type) and one where he was represented dead (the 'Christo-morto' type). Here, Christ is rendered dead, and our pity is further excited by the representation of the Instruments of the Passion around the base of the cross. Compared to medieval Italian crucifixes, the iconography is much more simple, even down to the straightforward representation of the four Evangelists around the sides of the base.","historicalContext":"The Counter Reformation \r\nThe 16th century was a period of intense self examination for the Roman Catholic church. Internal dissent was undermining its authority and whole nations were going over to the new Protestant faiths. To clarify its role, the church held the Council of Trent from 1545 to 1563. It addressed concerns about religious education, abuses of wealth and the relief of the poor. The Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) became the champion of the reformed Catholic church and promoted the faith worldwide. At the heart of this Counter Reformation was the need to restore the Eucharist to the centre of worship. In Catholic belief, the Eucharist enshrines the moment when bread and wine, consecrated at the altar, are transformed into the body and blood of Christ.\r\n\r\nArt and Faith \r\nThe image and message of the reinvigorated Roman Catholic church were actively promoted through dramatic architecture and furnishings. Throughout the 17th century new churches were built in the grand Baroque style. Their sumptuous interiors were complemented by elaborate monstrances, candelabra, sanctuary lamps and censers. Awe-inspiring altar silver drew the eyes of the faithful towards the Eucharist.\r\n\r\nThe Crucifix\r\nCarlo Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, and a leading architect of the Counter Reformation, defined the altar cross, in the second book of his 'Instructiones' as occupying the 'first place' amongst altar furnishings. Crosses of this sort, set against simple dark wood, can be seen in a number of paintings dating from the second half of the sixteenth century, where they are often associated with penitent saints such as Jerome.","briefDescription":"Silver, parcel-gilt, gilt bronze and wood, Genoa ca.1600-10","bibliographicReferences":[{"reference":{"text":"","id":""},"details":"","free":"Capitanio, A.  <font -u>Arte Orafa e Controriforma: la Toscana come crocevia</font> (Livorno: Sillabe, 2001) pp. 67-70."},{"reference":{"text":"","id":""},"details":"","free":"Keutner, H. <font -u>Un Nuovo Crocifisso in Argento del Giambologna</font> (Turin: Allemandi, 1999) pp. 23-30."},{"reference":{"text":"","id":""},"details":"","free":"Gibbons, M.W. <font -u>Giambologna: Narrator of the Catholic Reformation</font> (London: University of California Press, 1995) pp. 1-20"},{"reference":{"text":"","id":""},"details":"","free":"Watson, K. <font -u>Pietro Tacca: Successor to Giambologna</font> (London: Garland, 1983) pp. 255-6"},{"reference":{"text":"","id":""},"details":"","free":"Watson, K. <font -u>\"The crucifixes of Giambologna\"</font> in Avery, C. and Radcliffe, A. (eds.) <font -u>Giambologna: Sculptor to the Medici</font> (London: Arts Council of Great Britain, 1978) pp. 45-47."}],"production":"On acquisition, this piece was described as 'probably made by a Flemish craftsman, resident in Genoa'. This conclusion reflects both the fact of the Genoa mark on the piece, and a recognition of the character of the bronze-gilt figure. There certainly seems no reason to doubt the Genoese character of the silver-gilt base of the crucifix, which is similar, although by no means identical, in terms of ornament, to the Corpus Domini silver casket in the treasury of San Lorenzo, Genoa, dating from ca. 1565-68.\r\n\r\nThe corpus seems to be a derivative imitation of a group of crucifixes designed by Giambologna in Florence as early as the 1570s, but which were only manufactured, in silver, gold and bronze, from the 1580s. These crucifixes, which survive in quite large numbers, apparently coming directly from the Master's workshop, from the workshops of his pupils and assistants, such as Pietro Tacca, and from imitators, all share the characteristics of a slender Christ, whose musculature is visible, but not over-emphasised, a sagging loin-cloth and a slight twist to the body. Giambologna's crucifix type appears to have quickly become popular in Central and Northern Italy.\r\n\r\nThe V&A crucifix is clearly not by Giambologna's workshop, as the surface finishing is poor, with a simple circular punch being used to work Christ's beard and loincloth, as opposed to the fluid lines and high quality of finish visible in those crucifixes produced by Giambologna. There is also no precedent in Giambologna's work for the extreme tilt of the head. It would have been quite possible for a Genoese goldsmith or sculptor to have known Giambologna's crucifix type, as there was a bronze crucifix by Giambologna in the Grimaldi Chapel, San Francesco di Castelletto, Genoa.","productionType":{"text":"","id":""},"contentDescription":"","contentPlaces":[],"associatedPlaces":[],"contentPerson":[{"text":"St. Matthew","id":"N3599"},{"text":"St. Mark","id":"N987"},{"text":"St. Luke","id":"N997"},{"text":"St. John the Evangelist","id":"N935"}],"associatedPerson":[],"contentOrganisations":[],"associatedOrganisations":[],"contentPeople":[],"associatedPeople":[],"contentEvents":[{"text":"The Crucifixion","id":"V106"}],"associatedEvents":[],"contentOthers":[{"text":"Instruments of the Passion","id":"x31915"}],"contentConcepts":[],"contentLiteraryRefs":[],"galleryLabels":[{"text":"Altar Cross\r\nThe grandeur of this Genoese altar cross suggests it was commissioned by a wealthy family or church for a huge altar display. Genoa was a rich trading state in the 17th century, with massive profits to lavish on architectural schemes and impressive interior furnishings. \r\n\r\nItaly was the heartland of the Counter Reformation, a reforming movement within the Roman Catholic church which gathered momentum after the 1540s. During the 17th century there were many new churches, built and furnished in the fashionable and monumental Baroque style.\r\n\r\nGenoa, Italy, about 1600–10\r\nSilver (partly gilded), gilt bronze and wood\r\nMuseum no.M.508-1956. Hildburgh Bequest","date":{"text":"22/11/2005","earliest":"2005-11-22","latest":"2005-11-22"}}],"partNumbers":["M.508-1956"],"accessionNumberNum":"508","accessionNumberPrefix":"M","accessionYear":1956,"otherNumbers":[],"copyNumber":"","aspects":["WHOLE"],"assets":["2016JJ7101","2017KC8934","2019LN0663","2019LP6682","2019LP4940","2019LR5469","2019LU2449","2019LT9449"],"recordModificationDate":"2025-04-08","recordCreationDate":"2005-01-25","availableToBook":false}}